Existential Hypnosis
Existential Hypnosis
Existential Philosophy, Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy: Reflections.
Existential Hypnotherapy by King and Citrenbaum was published in 1993 and was one of the first studies which focused on the relationship between hypnosis, hypnotherapy and existential philosophy.i It offers an introduction to the main central themes in existential philosophy covering the concept of Being (Dasein), Letting Go (Gellasenheit), Anxiety (Angst), Will and Power, and the use of metaphor in psychotherapy.
King and Citrenbaum were both trained in Ericksonian Hypnosis and they also have written on the use of hypnosis for habit control.
The study from the perspective of existential analysis attempts to integrate existential concepts with the practice of psychotherapy and in particular the modality of hypnosis.
In developing the Ericksonian approach the study highlights that it is an oversimplification to characterise the Ericksonian method as only an indirect approach to therapeutic communication in light of the existential themes which are apparent in Ericksonian psychotherapy. In this respect attention is brought to bear on existential ontology or the study of Being qua Being, in particular the Sartrean account of ontology developed by Jean Paul Sartre in Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology. (1943)ii
Sartre in his phenomenological ontology develops the Husserlian concept of intentionality and the Heideggerian concept of Being (Dasein) as expressed in the phrase “Existence precedes essence.”
The onto-theological tradition derived from Classical Philosophy and the Christian appropriation of Greek philosophical ideas prioritises 'essence' over 'existence'. In this respect from the therapeutic perspective the existential use of hypnosis does not focus on personal essences, ego strengthening or personality typologies. The therapeutic focus informed by existential analysis centres upon life as it is actually lived and experienced, as Life-world (Lebsenwelt), a person's existential reality.
Hypnosis is situated with the historical research developments on the nature of hypnosis. In particular, the experimental research which was undertaken in the post world war II period, much of this being experimental – laboratory research carried out in the USA. For instance, the altered state theory of hypnosis in the work of Hilgard is regarded as an anti-existential theory since it relies on a pre-conceived theory and distinct phenomenological hypnotic state which is then applied to the therapeutic subject.iii The existential approach to hypnosis places significance on the experience of trance as a form of focused attention which occurs in the therapeutic alliance created in the therapy session. In this respect King and Citrenbaum reject the Ericksonian notion that all hypnosis is auto-hypnosis. Trance work and experience are understood as part of a dialectical and dialogical relationship between the therapist who uses hypnosis and the client who experiences trance. Thus, hypnosis is understood as a co-operative process between two persons which seeks to have beneficial results for the client who engages in an 'I' and 'thou' relationship.(Martin Buber)
Hypnosis is a therapeutic modality within a wider therapeutic context and experience. From the existential viewpoint the understanding of the nature of hypnosis as focused attention thus describes trance as a process and not a thing and in such a process there is the opportunity for making constructive behavioural and perspectival change.
In a more detailed application of existential analysis to hypnosis three existential concepts are of significance. These are the concepts of co-constitutionality, self concept and diagnostic labelling.
The concept of co-constitution is derived from the thought of the father of modern phenomenology, Edmund Husserl. In the Logical Investigations and in The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology Husserl situates the human subject as having three aspects, the person, the situation in which the person finds themselves and the relationship between these two aspects – the self – world relationship.
Husserl, following the work of his teacher, Brentano insisted that the epistemological relation of the subject to the world is a matter of intentionality. That is, all knowing is in its nature intentional between the subject of knowing and the object known. Subject and object are already related in the self – world relation. Consciousness is always already conscious of something.
This philosophical theory stands in distinction to the description of being and personal identity as developed by Descartes and further developed in the Cartesian tradition. The Cartesian analysis of the self as denoted in the dictum “Cogito ergo Sum,” “I think therefore I am.” is in contradistinction to the reality of the external world which leads to a radical dualism between the ego as thinking and the external world as physical extension. (Res Exstensa).
This leads modern philosophy in a dualistic direction whereby the self-world relation becomes characterised by a radical dichotomy so much so that the philosophical problematic becomes a matter of the proof of the external world's existence and the existence of the isolated individuality of the ego. Cartesianism creates a split between the subject and object. So in the therapeutic context the problematic becomes the question of a radically separate experience of the self. So instead of approaching the self-life-world relation in terms of 'Who am I?', the self is situated as a primordial relational knowing. In the therapeutic context negative self concepts are not considered in terms of essences which are immutably given but in terms of the person, world and self relation as intentionally co-constituted. The question posed in the frame as “Who am I?” in the Cartesian sense implies an 'objective contingency across situations' whereas in terms of co-constitution and intentionality the question of identity places the subject and world together. Thus, the more proper description of the ego becomes “Who am I – Where, When and with Whom, and with What.” This perspective becomes relevant to therapeutic practice in which psychological disturbance needs to be situated in the context of person and life-world.
Existential analysis questions the use of diagnostic psychiatric categories. From the viewpoint of the existential-phenomenological method working with the malleability of self concepts arises out of the experience of alienation and process rather than in static concepts of the self. This is summed up by King and Citrenbaum in the phrase “The sound of an ideal self concept is silence.” Intentionality and co-constitution resists the promotion of the use of negative labelling by placing the human subject in the self-world relation as a possibility which is orientated to the present and future. Metaphorically, it is interesting to ask what would be the sound of an existential self?
Amongst the prominent themes in existential analysis is the concept of anxiety as disclosive of the nature of existence. However, rather than considering anxiety as a source of psychological distress and paralysis, anxiety is re-framed in the existential perspective as a calling to action in the present and future.
Another prominent theme in existential analysis are the concepts of individual freedom, and responsibility over and against the crowd, “The They”, Das Man, the anonymous social group.
The significance of individual human freedom derives from the philosophy of action in which the human subject is always capable of free choice in relation to any circumstance of existence. Freedom and choice are made in the context of co-constitutionality. This means by its nature existential choice inevitably means a confrontation with limit situations, Grenzsituationen, the existentialia of human boundaries or limit. (Karl Jaspers) One choice inevitably closes off another possibility which has to be accepted in its facticity. Equally one choice may open up further possibilities which of its nature closes others.
The emphasis on existential freedom in the therapeutic context of hypnotherapy focuses on the notion of recovery, of situating the client as being a volunteer who chooses to engage with change rather than being a passive victim of circumstance. This is often reflected in subtle changes in the clients use of language with the emergence of a more directed and confident use of the first person singular which is similar to Freudian therapeutic aim of promoting the ego, 'Where Id is, ego shall be.' It is interesting to note that Bruno Bettelheim in his book Freud and Man's Soul (1982) which deals with the dubious translation of Freud from the German into the Standard English Edition highlights that the translator was prone to use medical terminology or Latin and Greek terms in order to present psychoanalysis as more scientific to an Anglo-American audience which is more influenced by the empirical philosophical tradition. As Bettelheim says it is one thing to say “My ego won't any longer be run by irrational anxieties.” and “I won't any longer be run by myirrational anxieties.” In the existential perspective it is important for the person to be responsible for their acts of self agency and this is entailed in the enunciation of the acting person....in the first person singular. Furthermore, one can suggest that an appropriate translation of Freud would show a far more humanistic-existential account of Freud and his therapeutic work than would be gathered from the Standard Edition with its empiricist gloss.iv
Existential analysis maintains that freedom is a possibility for the human existent. Freedom can be rejected in the refusal to accept responsibility in what Sartre denoted as 'bad faith,' Mavais foi.
The inauthenticity of bad faith is manifest in the refusal to accept decisions which are implied in being and assenting to the freedom of decision and choice. This is particularly the case in the context of personal relations to others. This is manifest in such cases where a person for example works excessively hard to please others when ultimately a person is ultimately responsible to themselves.
Human freedom becomes most apparent according to existential analysis in the will to power which is the operation of personal power acting in the world. The sense of empowerment derives from commitment and hard work which is often misunderstood particularly in the context of hypnosis where clients often expect instant and quasi-magical results without prior full commitment to change.
Finally, existential analysis notes that in human existence there is a fundamental uncertainty which characterises human life.
Existential analysis quite correctly situates the modality of hypnosis as a methodological treatment within the wider aspect of general psychotherapy. The existential use of hypnosis focuses on the dialogical relationship between the therapist and client. In the dialogical relationship where a positive description of the hypnotic trance is shared with the client, stressing that it is the client who puts him or herself in the trance process, and thus accentuating the client's experience of self control. It is by this means that the client is convinced of the positive and constructive purpose of entering into the trance experience. The trance is further ratified by the experience of time distortion, that is the reduction or extension in the experience of the phenomenological flow of time.
King and Citrenbaum raise the point from their perspective that it is a misunderstanding to characterise the Ericksonian approach using 'magical metaphors' as a technique. Rather Erickson worked also with psychiatric methods within the greater perspective of overall lived experience. (Lebenswelt) Moreover, Erickson developed his own deeply personal existential style which was authentic to himself.
Since existential analysis describes trance as a process rather than a state this has significance for the notion of hypnotizability and susceptibility for hypnotic trance. The capability for trance is described metaphorically as akin to the human capacity for being poetic. As to susceptibility it is the clients motivation which determines the susceptibility for the trance experience.
The use of standardized scales which are often used in clinical and research settings thus becomes at best irrelevant to the experience of the trance process but can be considered as encouraging a negative outcome for the client entering into the trance experience.
As to the depth of trance, existential analysis avoids too much emphasis on the depth of trance. In the dialogical relationship between therapist and client the therapist utilises the client's 'natural style' of trance focusing on engagement oriented to the process of change. It is stressed that each person has his or her own level of trance, and that in the trance process there is an ebb and flow of trance experience during the therapeutic session. Existential analysis regards the notion of depth of trance as having little significance for the therapeutic engagement. The aim of hypnosis in therapy is not the depth of trance but the resolution of the presenting problem or concern.
In terms of the induction process it is understood to be a detailed form of focused attention with the use of pacing with the client by mirroring words and rhythm. This leads to a slowing pace for the client with the reduction in the experience of anxiety. In focused attention the client learns to concentrate on the here and now of the experiential – existential moment. In the trance experience there occurs the suspension of rumination or critical judgement and the transformation of the operation of negative images in terms of self concept. Trance enhances the ability of the client to visualise positive change.
Existential analysis uses hypnosis as a therapeutic method to enhance the personal experience of power and the ability of the client to engage responsibly with their experience. This involves accepting that human life is always 'imperfectly human.' In terms of past experience this involves the recognition that the past is properly past, that there is nothing I can do about the past as an existential fact or facticity. In adopting this position in lived experience the existential concept 'Letting go' is utilised. The letting go of self representations especially of negative self concepts enables a more adequate or authentic change in the future. In this way 'being' is experienced as 'becoming.' (Whitehead) The technical aspects of hypnosis in the existential perspective of letting go focuses on the re-organisation of the clients experience in line with the Ericksonian idea that trance itself is an experience that re-orients realities. The re-framing of experience involves the creation of new healthy experiences in response to personal history and motivation in the present. Trance as the experience of letting go enables the client to experience the world differently and otherwise.
In trance work concerning post traumatic experience hypnosis works to free up dissociated amnesic memories. Here King and Citrenbaum employ diverse methods ranging from Gestalt, Bodily awareness, Here and Now awareness exercises and Mock Funerals. Also is significant is the use of embedded suggestions which register in the unconscious during trance.
One aspect of the practice of general psychotherapy is the promotion of empowerment in the client. This idea is expressed in existential analysis as the notion of 'will to power.' The will to power means that the human subject is a locus of will, action and decision in an inalienable manner. (Frankl) Rather than a scientific or psycho-analytic notion of cause and effect denoted in for instance Freud's mechanistic description of the psyche, an existential analysis is based on a philosophy of personal power and motivation, action takes priority. The danger of a causal – effect approach to the freedom of the existential subject is that it promotes a static ideation that we are caused by x, y or z and so on which in effect dis-empowers the human person. For example we thus consider ourselves as the victims of our childhood experience. In this respect existential analysis is critical of therapies which are based on 'inner child' ideas since the problem risks that focus is given to situating the existential subject as 'passive.' Moreover, losing oneself in the crowd to avoid responsibility is a form whereby the self is isolated in social anonymity. This viewpoint very much resembles the critique of the Jungian Child Archetype as developed in the thought of the Archetypal psychologist, James Hillman. In focusing on the psychological concept of the inner child the problem arises that we develop a psychological perspective which itself is infantile and perpetuates a situation whereby the client becomes stuck in a passive and infantile position. If the self – world relation, Lebensweltis one of appropriation, process and change then we ought to situate the adult as responsive and responsible for their own relation and response to any life event. In a sense, the use of the concept of 'the will to power' helps to identify those early childhood years of socialisation as a form of childhood hypnosis to transform the feeling of being a victim of circumstances and events to be replaced by the will to power in the present and future. We are the agents of our own act and acting.
Self hypnosis is explained in the light of the notion of the will to power whereby the subject uses self hypnosis as an exercise of focusing and refocusing of attention. In this respect, self hypnosis requires discipline, engagement and effort.
Anxiety (Angst) has been considered a fundamental disclosive concept in existential philosophy. Anguish and anxiety is the presentation of fear for myself as an existing and finite being in the world. The concept was classically developed by the Danish philosopher Kierkegaard as the concept of Dread. Kierkegaard uses the concept of Angst which places the human person as subject to radical contingency which can only be resolved by taking a leap of faith in relation to God. In a non-thesitic manner Heidegger uses the term to denote an anxiety which structures the whole of human life and which determines our responsibility to respond to our anxious condition. Sartre uses the term Angoisse which is used in a similar sense to the Heideggerian usage.
Whilst in the therapeutic arena anxiety is often experienced as profoundly distressing. Existential analysis interprets the experience of anxiety as an opportunity to exercise human freedom and responsibility. Again trance of its very nature is used to re-frame, re-label the experience of anxiety. The human person is not simply the victim – patient of human experience. Choice and responsibility are intrinsic to authentic human existence. Here again, the practice of self hypnosis can be of use with regard to self care and self-consideration where by the anxieties of the day are given over in the sense of letting go. Trance itself is inimical to the experience of anxiety and under proper guidance trance can assist focused attention on the present thus forestalling anxiety, rumination, worry and anticipatory anxiety.
It is interesting to note that existential analysis considers anxiety as disclosive of being manifesting the potentialities of freedom and responsibility in our engagement with the world. Anxiety and phobic anxiety often involves very focused forms of anxious attention and this is paralleled in the focusing process of trance. So in the trance state of hypnosis there is an opportunity to educate the client in the trance-like nature of the experience of anxiety in order to assist the client to re-focus when confronting anxiety and to move beyond the trance-like experience of anxiety. More recently, Michael Yapko has described the trance-like nature of depression which also parallels the trance process. So in trance work with anxiety and depression we can re-hearse new ways to experience the world. The human person is not fated to repeat the past or to paralysis in the present.
The therapeutic use of hypnosis in existential therapy also focuses on the personal meaning of symptoms for the client. Personal symptoms and concerns occur within the particular instance of a phenomenological world. Here the existential therapist shows a deep respect for personal experience and hypnosis is used to enhance the meaningful engagement with symptomatology. Symptoms are understood to be meaningful. In this respect hypnosis contributes to the facilitation of awareness. In cases where the client finds it difficult to articulate descriptive and meaningful responses to symptoms it is suggested that the therapist in line with his or her insight may use multiple choice questioning in order to elicit meaningful understanding. If this is difficult to verbalise in the trance process then the technique of ideo-motor responses such as the raising of the fingers for positive or negative responses to questioning can be used. Also minimal unconscious cues may well be noted by the therapist such the nodding of the head.
Following the significance of Husserlian phenomenology and the later developments in phenomenological hermeneutics an existential use of hypnosis seeks to elaborate on the importance of metaphor in the therapeutic alliance. It is often the case that rather than discursive – rational interventions in therapy it is the use of metaphor which can be disclosive for creative change in the client. Rather than a philosophical discussion about personal responsibility and human freedom the use of metaphorical phrases such as 'the ball is in your court,' may lead to greater creative responses.
In terms of hypnosis the use of metaphor keeps in touch with the clients own symbolic and metaphorical world which then can be paced and reflected to the client in their own experience. In this respect existential analysis understands that the unconscious itself is a metaphor in the persons own life-world (Lebenswelt) and also a metaphor operative within the psychoanalytic tradition itself. This also reflects the Ericksonian idea of the unconscious as a store house of learning experience which is always there for the utilisation of the subject. Here the unconscious becomes a metaphorical reason for behavioural and perspectival change. In a sense since the unconscious is being used in itself as a metaphor then questions regarding the epistemological status of the the unconscious as a psychic existent is thus irrelevant in the therapeutic dialogue. The unconscious becomes an excuse or rationale for change.
Edward Gardner
Heaton Hypnosis and Psychotherapy Practice
ipnoetic@gmail.com
iKing, M, E. and Citrenbaum. C, M. (1993) Existential Hypnotherapy. New York and London. The Guilford Press.
iiSartre. J.P. (1976) Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology. London: Methuen.
iiiHilgard.E,R. (1968) The Experience of Hypnosis: A Shorter Version of Hypnotic Susceptibility. New York and London. Harvest.
ivBettelheim. B. (1982) Freud and Man's Soul. London. Penguin.
